Piagets Theory Of Child Development

Piagets Theory Of chela DevelopmentGrand increment opening outline the strengths and weaknesses of Piagets speculation of boor ontogeny. Do you think that Piaget s theories still have an important place in modern psychology?IntroductionIn the 20s century, the first main theory of child study was established by Jean Piaget (Miller, 2011649). Piagets contribution (1986-1980) has had great clashs on progress schoolingal psychology, curiously in the ara of child and cognitive organic evolution. He overly used a scientific method to visualise exploitational cognition among early childhood and childhood (Oates Grayson, 2004 14). Piaget tried to live on the root of intuition in infancy and the change of their knowledge which occur over the period of judgment of conviction. He mentation children pass a series of cognitive phases in the same order (Bernstein Roy, 2008 464). Although Piagets theory of cognitive development has criticized call subject to defect in nigh respects (Lourenco Machado, 1996), his notions well-nigh children and their cognitive development have signifi bunst effected on developmental psychology (Bernstein Roy, 2008 464). This assignment firstly will demonstrate Piagets contribution in the field of child development .it then it shows the weaknesses of Piagets theory about cognitive development among children. And it then describe Piagets theory and modern psychology.Piaget partingPiaget is a professional expert in the field of cognitive development. Beilin (1992 191, cited in Shaffer Kipp, 2010 278) put it, assessing the impact of Piaget on developmental psychology is resembling assessing the impact of Shakespeare on English literature or Aristotle on philosophyimpossible. Furthermore, another famous expert in the field of child development his name is Flav either also stated that many of Piagets contributions have become so much a part of the way we view cognitive development nowadays that they are virtually invisible (Flavell, 1996 202, cited in Kail, 2012 179).In m wizardtary value of childrens thinking, Piaget revealed that childrens thinking is not as same as adults. Piaget emphasized that children require obtaining get word to learn. Then they can create their own plan and go them in necessary time. This method to teach children was very diverse if comparing with other fire which had before him. Hence Piaget has a substantial effect on the education of children (Westman and Costello, 2011 16).With respects of applying Piagets theory to educate children, the Piagets approach of education has had a profound effect on education process. Piagets developmental theory has had three major implications for educating children. Firstly, in damage of readiness, children have to be taught accord to their ability particularly the teaching of attainment and mathematics. In addition, the tasks which are set by the teachers have to be appropriate to the level of childrens perception and cognition. S econdly, as regards curriculum, teaching recourses such(prenominal) as science and math should involve concrete materials which students can use them skillfully. Thirdly, children learn from self-activity and actions and teachers must understand every childs requirements in order to build knowledge in terms of their needs (Gross, 2010 538).Piaget transformed cognition into developmental science. Piaget proved that cognition is the main part of the science of cognitive development. He also demonstrated why the processes of cognition are the central of development psychology and offered some approaches which can be employed to foot race them (Kail, 2012 179). Piaget provided the development psychology with a completely new notion about childrens nature, and the cognition of child development how and when occurs. Hence the fictitious character of Piaget in the development of cognition was as similar as Chomskys influence on the development of wrangle (Flavell, 1996 200).Piaget expos ed the stages of cognitive development among children. Feldman (2013 352) state that No theory of cognitive development has had more impact than that of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget .He thought that children pass a series of four phases in unchangeable order. Piaget preserved that the cognitive stages vary not merely in the quantity of knowledge at each phases, however, in the quality of understanding and information as well (Feldman, 2013 352).the weaknesses of Piaget theory notwithstanding all of these Piagets contribution, his theory about the child development has been criticized by some psychologists in order to reveal some weaknesses. His theory has some shortcomings which including dishonor and overvalue childs capacity, ignoring culture influence on child development and methodological limitations.Piaget underestimated and overestimated children qualification.Underestimate of infancy and childhoods competence and overestimate the capability of adolescents could be consi dered as a major defect in Piagets theory. The contemporary science of child development has exposed that toddlers and babes have capability more than Piagets expectation (Kail, 2012180). Some skilled cognition among children appears earlier than Piaget realized and others emerge latter (Carpenter, 2011, cited in Santrock, 201150). As an example, evidences have been revealed that objective lens procedure in children bring out to develop 3 to 4 months earlier than he believed (Baillargeon, 2002 Wang, Baillargeon, Paterson, 2005, cited in Weiten, 2010 456). This means childs have greater ability to understand objects than Piaget thought (Kail, 2012181). However, some adolescents competence was overestimated by Piagets cognitive theory (Cacioppo and Freberg, 2013 531). According to Piaget children in formal operation stage can understand the principles of math (Pastorino and Doyle-Portillo, 2013 340). Nevertheless, Cacioppo and Freberg (2013 531) state that Piaget was very wrong because of the level of childrens thinking is not fully mature, hence they cannot think logically.Piaget ignored cultural influence on cognitive developmentAnother criticism which has directed Piagets theory is that the impact of well-disposed environment and cultural factors in childs cognitive development were paid small attention by Piaget (Costello Westman, 2001138). Cultural and life pattern has more effect than Piaget thought on cognitive development. As an example, nomadic community does not interest in counting objects. Thus nomadic children learn conservancy of figures later than in Western culture (Franzoi, 2011237). Another illustration of this the children in Hausa federation of tribes in Nigeria do not know about conservation principles, because families in this tribe send their children to the school in early age (Fahrmeier, 1978, cited in Martin, Carlson and Buskist, 1997 513). Although the impact of cultural factors on the rate of cognitive development was admitt ed by Piaget, the contemporary science of developmental psychology has found that culture has a great role in childs thinking as well (Gauvain, 2001 Rogoff, 1998, 2003, cited in Shaffer Kipp 280). At the same time Piaget neglected social interaction among individuals in cognitive development (Shaffer Kipp 280). Interaction with peers, family members all the same whit teachers led to develop children understands. Piaget sometimes mentioned the influence of social environment and he did not ignore it at all (Kail, 2012181). He believed that social interaction assists children to avoid egocentric be givenency. However he did not find how social interaction assists childs development (Fleming, 2004 30)methodological and approach barriers.Piagets theory has been criticized not only with regard to problem of estimate children ability but his theory has some problem in terms of the principles of developmental science. In terms of observe his sisters Piaget has not observed a great varie ty of children, Instead of Piaget examines 30 or 40 children in his look into to find a respectable result he studied his own children at the Rousseau Institute. This means he has a small case study, the probability of biases in interpretable behavior of his own children, the difficulty in controlling environment and making his observation only in the laboratory (Miller, 2012, 85)Piaget usually utilise the clinical method. Employing clinical method to observe children might lead to give different questions to different children. However, uniform materials, instructions and measures of answer questions are the spine of data-based psychology (Miller, 2012, 85).Modern psychologists have been frustrated by Piagets reports of his experiment. Piaget did not mention bout the level of social economy of children, the number of participants, participants race and even he did not give us enough detail about his testing procedures as well. It might be difficult to fall whether Piaget is de scribing to children hypothetically or he really tested children. Piaget was poor in analyze of statistics. In his manner of speaking, Psychologists over-generalized their methods and arrived at delightful trivialities, particularly when an army of scientists translated their results into mathematical terms (1918, p. 63). Furthermore, acute observation, especially when made by a good observer . . . , surpasses all statistics (1936/1952, p. 72, cited in Miller, 2012, 85-86). Statistical summaries were not given by Piaget about his discovery, he supplied a pattern protocols which are lengthy interpreted by Piaget. Therefore he reads frequently cannot understand Piagets themes easily (Miller, 2012, 85-86).Piaget and modern psychologyDespite all of these shortcomings, Piaget has remained as a substantial character in the realm of cognitive psychology (Lourenco Machado, 1996, cite in Woolf, Namy, Lynn and Lilienfeld, 2011 375). Nowadays, based on Piagets theory the science of cogniti ve development has been re-conceptualized by psychologists (Woolf, Namy, Lynn and Lilienfeld, 2011 375). Moreover, jibe to Fleming (2004 31) the influence of Piagets theories on cognitive development among children will probably continue for a long time.Piagets Theory of Child DevelopmentPiagets Theory of Child DevelopmentThe first two historic period are very important in a child development. In this leaven you will find the key concepts and theories of cognitive, social and stimulated development in infancy. I am going to explain what cognitive development is and focus on cognitive theory of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and acquisition of language and perception. This essay will tell you what are the most common emotions of infants and what can causes it. Also, it will accede you to psychoanalytical theories of a child development by Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson and the differences between it. What is more, I will explain what adhesion is and the importance of it, also, explain Bowlbys addendum theory and how attachment develops during the first two years. In this essay I will explain why social doers need to know child development theories and why they whitethorn come in dawn with the infant and his or her family.Infancy. Infancy is the period of human development from ancestry to around 18 24 months. The period of infancy is loosely defined and depends on social convention. Infants depend on more mature caregivers to meet all their needs, who support their development (Davies, 2008).One of the main curves of development is nature versus nurture. The supporters of nature emphasize the importance of genes and biology. According to them, all normal children achieve the same development milestones at similar times and differences among children occur due to differences in genetic makeups. Meanwhile, nurture supporters emphasize environment-conditions and events outside the person (Sigelman, 1999).Cognitive developmentCognitive theories emphasiz e mental aspects of development, for example logic and memory. Jean Piaget was one of the most influential theorists of development psychology. He had been studying childrens development of logical thinking for six decades (Boyd, Bee, 2009). The success of Piaget theory is largely due to accurate observations of his children at home (Slee, 2002).According to Piaget the childs ability to think, reason and understand the origination is rapidly growing during the first two years of life. He or she is an active participant in growth process (Slee, 2002).Piaget claims that key elements in cognitive development are assimilation and accommodation. When a child incorporates new information into existing patterns of thought and behaviour assimilation occurs. Meanwhile, during accommodation the infant has to change an existing structure in order to deal with new information (Slee, 2002).Piaget believed that the process of learning is intrinsically satisfying to the infant. Moreover, the fir st 18 months of life represent enormous gains in the infants intellectual development. (Slee, 2002, p.143)Piaget divided cognitive development into four major periods. The period from birth to age 2 is called sensorimotor stage (Sigelman, 1999). Throughout this stage the infant is actively discovering about the world and his or her effects upon it. (Durkin, 1995) In this period intelligence is manifested in action (Mussen, Conger, Kagan, Huston, 1990). It is divided into 6 substages (Slee, 2002).During substage 1(0-1 months) reflexes, for example sucking, are being used in order to assimilate their experience of the world. During first month reflex, such as sucking, is modified and becomes more efficient. But not all reflexes change in this substage (Slee, 2002).According to Piaget in substage 2 (1-4 months), the key element is a repeat of movements, or primary circulation reactions. It involves only infants own torso, for instance, infant finds having a undulate in mouth a pleasa nt sensation and if the thumb falls out, he or she will try to put it back (Slee, 2002).In substage 3 (4-8 months) the repetition of primary circular reactions acts on the world outside the childs body (Slee, 2002). By repeating some actions the infant tries to trigger reactions outside his or her body (Boyd, Bee, 2009).In substage 4 (8-12 months) the infant becomes capable of keeping a goal in mind and achieving it. The baby is able to combine two schemes in order to achieve his or her goal, for example moving aside a pillow in order to reach a toy (Boyd, Bee, 2009).Substage 5 (12-18 months) is a stage of tertiary circular reactions during which the infant is actively seeking novelty and the child experiments. (Slee, 2002) It is the time when the infant tries out new ways of playing and manipulating objects (Boyd, Bee, 2009).In the final substage 6 (18-24 months) the infant becomes able to manipulate mental symbols, such as words and images. Symbols start to represent objects or ev ents (Boyd, Bee, 2009).Many studies have shown that Piaget have underestimated the cognitive capacity of children. Researchers discovered that infants better understand object movements, than Piaget suggested and imitation appears at junior age (Boyd, Bee, 2009).Language. Piaget did not focus much on the development of language. Even though, infants make a huge progress, starting with babbling to the earliest ability to understand the meaning of individual words, to first word at around 12 months of age (Wilson, et al., 2008). At the beginning infants can understand many more words than they can use in their own speech. The infant develops a enormous range of communicative gestures, before using words (Lefrancois, 1999). At this time infants tend to learn words slowly, but from 16 months to the end of second year they start acquiring words much faster. By 24 months infants are able to use 300 words (Wilson, et al., 2008).There is also known that children begin to talk sooner, deve lop larger vocabularies if their parents talk to them often, read to them regularly and use wide range of words (Boyd, Bee, 2009).In general language acquisition follows a regular sequence, although, there are wide variations in the patters and speed of language. Some children start using individual words at 8 months, meanwhile others not until 18 months (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Speech delays can be an early indicator of the childs atypical development. (Wilson, et al., 2008)Perception. With the economic aid of the various sensory modalities, like sight, hearing, taste and smell, infants pay attention to the changes around them (Slee, 2002). Early perceptual learning depends on experiences (Boyd, Bee, 2009).During first 2 months, babies are tone for meaningful patterns. Sharp-dark light contrast, which normally signals the edge of some object, stops babies scanning the world around them. Between 2 and 3months the infant starts paying attention to what the object is, rather than where th e object is (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Babies are able to differentiate sound to an impressive degree. They can discriminate the loudness and pitch of sound. DeCasper and Fifer found that infant is capable to screw mothers voice from another female voice, but not fathers voice from another male voice. Soon after birth infants are able to identify the denotation of odour and react to it, by turning towards or away from it. Infants show preference for sweet substances (Slee, 2002).EmotionsCrying, smiling and fear reactions are the most popular emotions of the infant, according to the most of research .Gianino and Tronick argued that infants are capable to regulate or control their emotions, for example by turning away or sucking a thumb (Lefrancois, 1999).Infant crying, explain Pinyerd, is one the infants main ways of communicating both physiological and psychological distress. However, not all infant cries are cries of pain, hunger or distress. (Lefrancois, 1999, p. 161). Crying because of hunger or pain can be eliminated meanwhile, unidentifiable cry is harder to stop. Constant crying can be highly annoying for parents and siblings (Lefrancois, 1999). merry and laughing is a core part of parent-child interaction. First smile can appear as early as two to twelve hours after birth, even though it is not a social smile, but rather a reflex. fond smile is a repartee to auditory and visual stimuli, for example response to a caregivers face. From 3 month the infant is able to produce selective social smile. The infants react to social stimuli that are familiar (Lefrancois, 1999).According to Watson and Rayner, loud noises and choppy loss of support can cause the infants fear. To paraphrase Hebb, fear can occur then the infant develops certain expectations about the world and those expectations are profaned (Lefrancois, 1999).Psychoanalytical theoriesPsychoanalytic theorists believe that development change happens because of internal drives and emotions influence behav iour. (Bee, Boyd, 2009, p. 27) According to this theory infants get more pleasure from mouthing objects than from manipulating them with other parts of their body (Boyd, Bee, 2009).According to Freuds spirit development theory, at birth infants were equipped with biological instincts that demanded satisfaction, which was driven by self-presentation and procreation (Slee, 2002). Freud argued that there are three different levels of personality in human development id, ego and superego (Lefrancois, 1999).The oral stage (0-1 years). In Freuds theory, during the first year of life the psychic energy of the infant is focused on the mouth. Events surrounding the reduction of physic tension and attaining pleasure relate primarily to acts of feeding, such as sucking on a nipple or bottle. (Slee, 2002, p. 161) Freud argued that infant becomes focused on the person providing blessedness and reducing the level of psychic tension. According to Freud, attachment is developing between the chil d and the person. He argued that the amount of gratification is very important in progressing to the next stage. To little or too much of gratification, would end in fixation at the oral stage. To paraphrase Freud it could as adults derive and undue amount of pleasure from mouth. Under gratification as adults may lead to depression, meanwhile, over gratification can cause adults to become likewise dependent upon others (Slee, 2002). During this stage the infants personality mainly consists if id. The infant is driven by an urge to seek immediate satisfaction of impulses. He or she does not know what is possible or impossible, has no sense of reality and conscience (Lefrancois, 1999).Many developmentalists fault Freud for proposing a theory without hardly any evidence to support it. His theory is difficult to test as it requires studying unconscious motivations and unseen id, ego and superego (Sigelman, 1999). On the other hand, his theories tendinged to alert parents and those wor king with children about the importance of the first years of life and rich emotional life. It helped Erikson and Bowlby to build on Freuds idea about the significance of the infancy for further development (Slee, 2002) According to Kegan, it is used in clinics and hospital by mental health practitioners (Lefrancois, 1999).Psychosocial approach. Erikson was inspired by Freuds psychoanalytical theories. But there are major differences between Freud and Erikson. Erikson concentrated on the importance of social environment meanwhile, Freud emphasized the importance of sexuality and psychodynamic engagements. Opposite to Freud, Erikson was concerned with the healthy personality (Lefrancois, 1999).According to Erikson there are 8 human development stages (Lefrancois, 1999). Erikson like Freud believed that every stage had crucial issue, which had to be dealt with before moving to the next stage (Slee, 2002).Basic trust versus (0-1 years). According to Erikson, during this stage the ma in issue is the development of a sense of trust. The development of a sense of trust depends on the quality of care rather than quantity the infant encounters (Slee, 2002). The infant is initially confront with a conflict between mistrust of a world about which little is known and an inclination to develop a trusting attitude toward that world hence mistrust. (Lefrancois, 1999, p. 35) At this point a primary caregiver usually mother, is the most important person. The relationship between caregiver and the infant determines the resolution of the conflict between trust and mistrust and realization that the world is predictable, safe and loving. There is a risk of the infant growing up mistrustful and anxious, if the crucial issue of the stage is not resolved (Lefrancois, 1999).Many people found Eriksons theory more acceptable than Freuds, as it emphasize the interaction of biological and social influences. At the same time, despite providing a useful description of human personalit y development, it still does not explain how this development comes about (Sigelman, 1999).AttachmentAn attachment is an emotional bond in which a persons sense of security is bound up in the relationship. (Bee, Boyd, 2009, p. 150) The infant forms a special relationship with caregivers and experiences pleasure and security in their presence, but anxiety and distress when they are gone (Bremner, Fogel, 2007).John Bowlby has developed the most influential theory of parent/child and other relationship attachment. His attachment theory was based on ethological and psychoanalytical theories and modern cognitive psychology (Sigelman, 1999). Bowlby argued that attachment to one or more caregivers is genetically programmed in everyone. According to Bowlby infants put up in a way to ensure the proximity of the caregiver. In order caregivers to respond, infants cry, cling, smile or babble. As a result of this behaviour, attachment gradually develops. This lovely of behaviour is directed to a particular person, preferably to a mother, than strangers. Attachment starts to be organized some time during second six months (Slee, 2002).Bowlby divided infants development of attachment in 4 phases (Boyd, Bee, 2009)Nonfocused orienting and signalling phase (birth to 3 months). In order to draw the attention and signal their needs infants cry, smile and make mettle contacts (Boyd, Bee, 2009).Focus on one or more figures phase (3to 6 months). Infants concentrate come here signals to people with whom they spend most of the time. Meanwhile, response to foreign people becomes less common (Boyd, Bee, 2009).Secure base behaviour phase (6 to 24 months). The infants start to seek proximity by following and clinging to caregivers, especially when they are anxious, hungry or injured. This behaviour is directed to a primary caregiver and only others, if the primary caregiver is not available or not responding (Boyd, Bee, 2009). sexual model phase (24 months and beyond). Infants learn h ow an anticipated action might affect the bonds they share with caregivers (Boyd, Bee, 2009).To sum up, according to Bowlby attachment is a part of our evolutionary heritage. With the help of interaction of biological and environmental forces attachment develops during infancy. Later development and quality of relationship is determined by the first attachment relationship between the infant and the caregiver (Sigelman, 1999).Some theorists argue, including Piaget, that the infants relationships with peers are at least as significant as the parent/infant relationship. They argue that those relationships contribute differently to development (Sigelman, 1999).Social work with infantsWhen we talk about social work with infants, the family of the baby is a part of it. Social workers safeguard children and prevent them from suffering. It is crucial for a social worker to know the child development theories in order to undertake assessments, which includes seeing, observing, engaging, tal king and doing various activities with the child (OLoughlin, 2008).Social worker may come in contact with the infant and his family if the infant was damaged before birth (for example foetal alcohol syndrome), parents experience mental illness or misuse of alcohol or drugs. Due to issues that parents face, the infant may be harmed as the needs of the child is not met, for example not dressed properly, nappies are not changed, malnutrition, staying in a not safe environment. Due to these circumstances infants cognitive development might be delayed. Depressed mothers can interact with the child less or stockpile anger, which may lead to insecurely attached children (OLoughlin, 2008). Some parents may be too immature or preoccupied by personal problems to give their child enough affection and care. In that case the infant is not able to develop a sense of trust and later, growing autonomy (Herbert, Harper-Dorton, 2002).When working with the infant and family it is not only important t o assess the infant, it is also crucial to assess parenting capacity. Parents should be able access and provide for the childs physical needs. Family is responsible for childs safety. The infant should receive secure, stable and affectionate relationships with caregivers. They should promote childs learning and intellectual development through interaction, communication, talking and responding to the child. Parents are responsible for the infants ability to regulate his or her emotions and behaviour (OLoughlin, 2008). culminationAn understanding of infant development patterns and concepts is necessary for parents and caregivers, as well as all professionals who may come in contact with the child. By knowing them parents can create nurturing, caring and safe environment. It is useful for social workers as well, as they can assess infant and ensure that all their needs are met. discriminating the importance of cognitive development allows caregivers to support it by encouraging explo ration, thinking and leaning. By talking to children more often and reading them regularly, caregivers can improve their language skills. Failure to acquire language skills can be indicator that there might be development difficulties or lack of language stimulation. Attachment development is crucial during infancy as well, especially with the primary caregiver, usually mother. It provides healthy emotional and social development and determines later development and quality of relationship.Even though psychoanalytical theory of personal development by Freud is highly criticized, as there is no evidence to test it, it had a major impact on theories about childrens socio-emotional development.